##Introduction
The study of tribal and peasant movements forms a critical pillar of Modern Indian History, especially for the Bihar Public Service Commission (BPSC) examinations. This subtopic—Tribal & peasant movements — Santhal, Munda—is not merely a list of revolts; it is a window into the structural violence of colonial rule, the resilience of indigenous communities, and the birth of organised resistance that later fed into the national movement. For BPSC aspirants, this area has proven to be a consistent scoring zone, with 10 questions appearing across the available previous year papers (2018–2025) , covering leaders, locations, dates, and organisational linkages.
The questions test a blend of factual recall (e.g., “Who were the leaders of the Santhal Revolt?” – BPSC 2021, 2022), geographical knowledge (e.g., “In which territory did tribals rebel against the British?” – BPSC 2018), and analytical understanding of peasant organisations (e.g., “Who formed Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha?” – BPSC 2019; “The Bakasht Movement was organised by whom?” – BPSC 2023). The depth required is moderate but precise: aspirants must know not only the iconic figures like Sidhu and Kanhu (Santhal) and Birsa Munda (Munda), but also lesser-known leaders such as Buddhu Bhagat (Kol Revolt) and the institutional history of the Bihar Kisan Sabha under Swami Sahajanand Saraswati. The syllabus also explicitly mentions “Ancient Bihar,” “Medieval India,” and “Modern India,” but the subtopic itself is firmly anchored in the colonial period, with occasional linkages to earlier revenue systems.
This chapter will equip you with everything needed to ace this subtopic. We will begin by building a conceptual foundation—defining what constitutes a tribal movement versus a peasant movement, understanding the colonial revenue policies that triggered these uprisings, and mapping the socio-economic context of Bihar and neighbouring regions. Then we will dive deep into the Santhal Rebellion (1855–56) , the Munda Rebellion (Ulgulan, 1899–1900) , the Kol Revolt (1831–32) , and the peasant movements led by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati (Bihar Kisan Sabha, Bakasht Movement). Each section will include causes, leaders, events, suppression, and significance. We will also analyse the Chauri Revolt (1798) , a lesser-known but tested event. Throughout, we will embed the 10 PYQs as teaching tools, not as separate lists.
By the end of these notes, you will be able to:
- Distinguish between tribal and peasant movements in terms of leadership, demands, and methods.
- Recall all major leaders, years, and locations with the help of mnemonics and comparison tables.
- Understand the colonial land revenue systems (Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, Mahalwari) that underlay these revolts.
- Analyse the transition from pre-1857 tribal uprisings to post-1857 organised peasant movements.
- Predict future question angles based on tested patterns.
Let us begin.
Core Concepts & Foundations
Before examining specific movements, it is essential to grasp the foundational concepts. These definitions will recur throughout the chapter. Each key term is presented in a blockquote for quick reference.
Tribal movement: A collective action by indigenous communities (Adivasis) against external forces—usually the colonial state, moneylenders, and zamindars—that threaten their land, forest rights, cultural autonomy, and traditional governance. Tribal movements often involve armed rebellion and are rooted in a sense of ethnic identity and territoriality. Examples: Santhal, Munda, Kol.
Peasant movement: A mobilisation of agricultural cultivators (tenants, smallholders, landless labourers) against oppressive revenue demands, high rents, illegal levies, and debt bondage. Peasant movements may be led by educated intermediaries or local leaders and often demand legal reforms, rent reduction, or land rights. Examples: Bihar Kisan Sabha, Bakasht Movement.
Colonial land revenue system: The framework of taxation imposed by the British East India Company and later the Crown, which fundamentally altered land ownership, tenancy, and agrarian relations. The three main systems were Permanent Settlement (1793, Bengal, Bihar, Odisha), Ryotwari (direct settlement with cultivators, mainly in Madras and Bombay Presidencies), and Mahalwari (village-level settlement, mainly in North-Western Provinces). These systems created new classes of zamindars, moneylenders, and intermediaries, often at the expense of tribal and peasant communities.
Permanent Settlement (1793): Introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha. It fixed land revenue in perpetuity, making zamindars the absolute owners of land. This led to the emergence of a parasitic landlord class, while peasants were reduced to tenants-at-will, subject to rack-renting and eviction. Tribal areas were often brought under this system without regard for communal landholding patterns.
Ryotwari system: A direct settlement between the government and the individual cultivator (ryot). Revenue was assessed on the actual area cultivated and revised periodically. While intended to eliminate intermediaries, it often led to high assessments and forced cultivators into debt. This system affected tribal regions in central India.
Mahalwari system: Revenue was settled with the village community (mahal) as a whole, with the headman or village body responsible for collection. It preserved some communal structures but still imposed heavy burdens.
Bakasht land: In Bihar, Bakasht referred to land that was directly cultivated by the zamindar or his tenants under a special arrangement, often involving high rents and insecure tenure. The Bakasht Movement (1937–38) was a struggle by tenants to secure rights over such land, led by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati.
Ulgulan (Great Tumult): The name given to the Munda Rebellion (1899–1900) led by Birsa Munda. It was a millenarian movement that combined religious revivalism with armed resistance against the British, Christian missionaries, and dikus (outsiders). The term “Ulgulan” is now synonymous with the Munda struggle.
Dikus: A term used by tribal communities in the Chotanagpur region to refer to outsiders—moneylenders, traders, zamindars, and British officials—who exploited them. The Santhal and Munda rebellions both targeted dikus.
Kisan Sabha: A peasant organisation. The Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS) was founded in 1929 by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati. It became the leading platform for peasant grievances in Bihar, organising movements against zamindari oppression, high rents, and the Bakasht system. It later merged with the All India Kisan Sabha.
Nirbal Sevak: A Hindi newspaper started by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati in 1929 to highlight the hardships of peasants. It was a powerful tool for mobilisation and has been tested in BPSC 2024.
Now, let us understand why these movements occurred. The British colonial administration, through its revenue policies, systematically dismantled the traditional landholding and forest-use systems of tribal communities. In the Santhal Parganas, the Permanent Settlement created a class of non-tribal zamindars who imposed heavy rents and seized land. In the Chotanagpur region (Munda and Kol areas), the British introduced the Khuntkatti system (a form of communal landholding) but then undermined it by recognising individual zamindars and allowing moneylenders to acquire tribal land through mortgages. Forest laws restricted shifting cultivation and access to forest produce. Christian missionaries, while providing education and healthcare, also disrupted tribal social structures and religious practices. These pressures—economic, cultural, and political—exploded into armed rebellions.
Peasant movements, on the other hand, emerged from the contradictions of the zamindari system itself. In Bihar, the Permanent Settlement had created a powerful landlord class that extracted exorbitant rents, imposed illegal cesses (abwabs), and evicted tenants at will. The Great Depression of the 1930s worsened the crisis, leading to widespread indebtedness and land alienation. The Bihar Kisan Sabha, under Sahajanand, channelled this anger into organised protests, strikes, and legal battles.
With this foundation, we now turn to the specific movements that have been tested and those that are essential for a comprehensive understanding.
The Santhal Rebellion (1855–56) – The First Major Tribal Uprising in Bihar
Background and Causes
The Santhals are one of the largest tribal communities in India, concentrated in the Santhal Pargana region of present-day Jharkhand (formerly part of Bihar). Before the British, they lived in relative autonomy, practising shifting cultivation and enjoying communal ownership of forests and land. The introduction of the Permanent Settlement in 1793 brought the region under the control of non-tribal zamindars, moneylenders (mahajans), and traders. These outsiders—collectively called dikus—exploited the Santhals through:
- Land alienation: Zamindars claimed ownership of land that Santhals had traditionally cultivated. Santhals were reduced to tenants and forced to pay high rents.
- Debt bondage: Moneylenders charged exorbitant interest rates (often 50–100% per annum) and seized land when debts were not repaid.
- Forced labour (begar): Santhals were compelled to work for zamindars without wages.
- Judicial oppression: British courts favoured moneylenders and zamindars, as they were literate and had legal knowledge. Santhals lost cases and were imprisoned.
- Forest restrictions: The British imposed forest laws that restricted the Santhals’ access to timber, fuel, and grazing lands.
The immediate trigger was a series of oppressive acts by the local zamindar and the British administration. In 1854, a severe famine struck the region, worsening the misery. The Santhals decided to rise in a coordinated rebellion.
Leaders: Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu
The rebellion was led by four brothers—Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand, and Bhairav Murmu—with Sidhu and Kanhu as the principal leaders. They belonged to the Murmu clan and were respected within the community. Sidhu is said to have received a divine call to lead the uprising. They mobilised thousands of Santhals across the region, using traditional methods of communication (drums, conch shells, and messengers). The leaders were tested in BPSC 2021 and 2022, where the correct answer was “Sidhu and Kanhu.” The distractors included Gaurakshni Bhagat and Keshav Chandra Roy (associated with the Birsa Munda movement or later peasant leaders) and Shambhunath Pal and Korra Mallaya (unrelated). The repeated appearance of this question underscores the importance of remembering the exact names.
Course of the Rebellion
- 30 June 1855: Sidhu and Kanhu gathered about 10,000 Santhals at Bhognadih (near present-day Sahebganj, Jharkhand). They declared war against the British and the dikus.
- July 1855: The Santhals attacked police stations, zamindar houses, and moneylender establishments. They targeted symbols of oppression, burning records and taking control of large areas.
- British response: The East India Company dispatched troops from Calcutta, Dinajpur, and Bhagalpur. The Santhals fought with bows, arrows, and axes against muskets and cannons. Despite their bravery, they were no match for the disciplined British army.
- Key battles: The Santhals won initial victories at Barhait and Litipara, but were defeated at Sahibganj and Rajmahal. The British used scorched-earth tactics, burning villages and destroying food supplies.
- Capture and death: Sidhu was killed in battle in August 1855. Kanhu was captured and executed in 1856. The rebellion was crushed by early 1856.
Suppression and Aftermath
The British response was brutal. Thousands of Santhals were killed, and many were deported to penal colonies. The region was placed under military control. However, the rebellion forced the British to recognise the distinct identity of the Santhals. In 1856, the Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act was passed, which prohibited the transfer of tribal land to non-tribals. This was a significant concession, though it was not fully enforced.
Significance
- The Santhal Rebellion was one of the first major tribal uprisings against British rule, predating the Revolt of 1857.
- It demonstrated the capacity of tribal communities to organise large-scale resistance.
- It led to the creation of the Santhal Pargana as a separate administrative unit, with special protections for tribal land.
- The rebellion inspired later movements, including the Munda Rebellion.